Anti-Asian Racism in the Shadow of COVID-19 in the USA: Reported Incidents, Psychological Implications, and Coping Resources

Authors

  • Inna Reddy Edara Graduate Institute of Educational Leadership & Development, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei, Taiwan

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.30564/jpr.v2i3.1932

Abstract

Racism, which has been a deeply rooted feature of so many human societies across the world for centuries, has become rampant in the shadow of the COVID-19 pandemic. In the past racism was thought to be as somehow “natural” or “biological.” Later on, sociologists recognized “race” as a socially and culturally constructed ideology, which exists in a society at both the individual and institutional levels. Further down the timeline, psychologists viewed racism as an individual or a collective psychological defensive mechanism generated by feelings of fear, insecurity, and anxiety in the face of imminent or presumed internal or external threat. No matter how it is described, racism has become rampant in the shadow of COVID-19, manifested in the incidents of racial slurs and verbal abuse, online bullying, physical attacks, vandalism, and others. It took the forms of white supremacy, xenophobia, Sinophobia, and institutional and aversive racism. It was institutionalized, politicized, and religionized. Given this increasing occurrence of racism triggered by COVID-19, this paper tried to trace the historical roots of racism, followed by the analysis of the specific incidents of anti-Asian racism and discrimination related to COVID-19 in the United States. This paper also sketched the psychological implications of racism and some coping mechanisms for the victims.

Keywords:

Anti-Asian racism, Coping mechanisms, COVID-19 pandemic, Psychological implications

References

[1] Wikipedia. List of incidents of xenophobia and racism related to the 2019-20 coronavirus pandemic,2020.Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_2019%E2%80%9320_coronavirus_pandemic

[2] Balvaneda, B., Roemer, L., Hayes-Skelton, S.,Yang, A., Ying, A. Responding to racism during the COVID-19 outbreak, 2020. Retrie ved from:https://adaa.org/learn-from-us/from-the-experts/blog-posts/consumer/responding-anti-asian-racism-during-covid-19

[3] Taylor, S. The psychology of racism, 2018. Retrieved from: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/outthedarkness/201801/the-psychology-racism

[4] Ghani, N. Racism. In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. Thousand Oakes, CA: Sage Publications, 2008: 1113-1115.

[5] Newman, D. M. Sociology: Exploring the architecture of everyday life (9th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2012.

[6] Feagin, J. R. Racist America: Roots, current realities,and future directions. New York, NY: Routledge, 2000.

[7] Morgan, G. Images of organization (2nd ed.). Thousand Oakes, CA: Sage Publications.

[8] Machery, E., Faucher, L., Kelly, D. R. On the alleged inadequacies of psychological explanations of racism.The Monist, 2010, 93(2): 228-254.

[9] Jones, M. Social psychology of prejudice. New York,NY: Pearson, 2001.

[10] United Nations. International convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination,1965. Retrieved from:https://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CERD.aspx

[11] Jenkins, J. P. White supremacy, 2016. Retrieved from:https://www.britannica.com/topic/white-supremacy

[12] McIntosh, P. White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. Peace and Freedom, 1989: 8-10.

[13] Ansell, A. E. Color blindness. In Schaefer, Richard T.(ed.), Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society.Thousand Oakes, CA: Sage Publications, 2008: 320-322.

[14] Mukhopadhyay, C. C., Chua, P. Cultural racism. In J. H. Moore (ed.). Encyclopedia of race and racism (pp. 377-383). Detroit, MI: Thomson Gale, 2008.

[15] Wimmer, A. Explaining xenophobia and racism: A critical review of current research approaches. Ethnic and Racial Studies. 1997, 20(1): 17.DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.1997.9993946

[16] Lietz, M.. Not that kind of racism: How good people can be racist without awareness or intent, 2018. Retrieved from: https://w ww.egc.org/blog-2/2018/2/12/not-that-kind-of-racism

[17] Saucier, D. A.; Miller, C. T., Doucet, N.. Differences in helping Whites and Blacks: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2005, 9(1): 2-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0901_1

[18] Aronson, E., Wilson, T.D., Akert, R.M. Social psychology (7th ed,), NewYork, NY: Pearson, 2010.

[19] Garfin, D. R., Silver, R. C., Holman, E. A. The Novel Coronavirus (COVID-2019) outbreak: Amplification of public health consequences by media exposure. Health Psychology, 2020, 39(5): 355-357.

[20] Worldometers. Coronavirus cases,2020. Retrieved from https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/

[21] World Health Organization. Emergency Committee regarding the outbreak of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/30-01-2020-statement-on-the-second-meeting-of-theinternational-health-regulations-%282005%29-emergency-committee-regarding-theoutbreak-of-novel-coronavirus-%282019-ncov%29

[22] Perlman, S. Another decade, another coronavirus.The New England Journal of Medicine, 2020, 382:760 -762.

[23] Horesh, D., Brown, A. D. Traumatic stress in the age of COVID-19: A call to close critical gaps and adapt to new realities. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2020, 12(4): 331-335.

[24] White, A. R. Historical linkages: Epidemic threat,economic risk, and xenophobia. Perspectives, 2020,Retrieved from:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30737-6

[25] Cheung, H., Feng, C., Deng, B. Coronavirus: What attacks on Asians reveal about American identity,2020. Retrieved from:https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-cana-da-52714804

[26] New York Times. Trump defends using ‘Chinese virus’ label, ignoring growing criticism, 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/18/us/politics/china-virus.html

[27] Mendonca, S. P. Viral video: Man bullies elderly Asian woman and chases her on Florida beach with sanitizer, 2020. Retrieved from:https://www.ibtimes.sg/viral-video-man-bullies-elderly-asian-woman-chases-her-florida-beach-sanitizer-41398

[28] Bay City News. Website Launches to Document Anti-Asian Hate Crimes in Wake of COVID-19, 2020.Retrieved from: https://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/coronavirus/website-launches-to-document-anti-asian-hate-crimes-inwake-of-covid-19/2258297/

[29] Perez, E., Shortell, D. Man under investigation for plotting an attack at a hospital believed to be treating Covid-19 patients was killed during an FBI investigation, 2020. Retrieved from:https://edition.cnn.com/2020/03/25/us/missouri-man-killed-fbi-investigation/index.html

[30] Asmelash, L. (2020, February 01). UC Berkeley faces backlash after stating “xenophobia” is “common” or “normal” reaction to coronavirus. Retrieved from:https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/01/us/uc-berkeley-coronavirus-xenophobia-trnd/index.html

[31] Han, J. Mask dilemma troubles Koreans in US, 2020.Retrieved from https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/world/2020/03/683_286453.html

[32] Summers, J. U.S. surgeon general: People of color “socially predisposed” to coronavirus exposure,2020. Retrieved from:https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-liveupdates/2020/04/10/832026070/u-s-surgeon-general-people-of-color-socially-predisposed-to-coronavirus-exposure

[33] Gostanian, A., Ciechalski, S., Abdelkader, R. Asians worldwide share examples of coronavirus-related xenophobia on social media, 2020. Retrieved from:https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/asians-worldwide-share-examples-coronavirus-related-xenophobia-social-media-n1132036

[34] Hay, A., Gaspani, M. Official corrected - fake flyers and face-mask fear: California fights coronavirus discrimination, 2020. Retrieved from:https://news.trust.org/item/20200214225344-4d4x6

[35] Capatides, C. Bullies attack Asian American teen at school, accusing him of having coronavirus, 2020.Retrieved from:https://www.cbsnews.com/news/coronavirus-bullies-attack-asian-teen-los-angeles-accusing-him-of-having-coronavirus/

[36] Betz, B. Petition calls for expulsion of California high school students accused of yelling “coronavirus” at Vietnamese students, 2020. Retrieved from:https://www.foxnews.com/us/petition-expulsion-california-high-school-students-coronavirus-vietnamese-students

[37] Driscoll, E. Racist death threats lodged against Seymour restaurant, 2020. Retrieved from:https://valley.newhavenindependent.org/archives/entry/update_racist_death_threats_lodged_against_seymour_restaurant/

[38] Sun Times. Police seek suspects in Naperville jogger attack, 2020. Retrieved from: https://chicago.suntimes.com/crime/2020/3/27/21196670/naperville-jogger-attack-police-seek-suspects-photos-crime-stoppers-75th-washington

[39] D’Angelo, B. Coronavirus: Indiana gas station owner apologizes after clerk kicks out doctor for being Asian, 2020. Retrieved from:https://www.fox13memphis.com/news/trending/coronavirus-indiana-gas-station-owner-apologizes-after-clerk-kicks-out-doctor-being-asian/TNT2MVQEFZGZTI2QZWT6Q5RRZE/

[40] Hassanzadeh, E. Coronavirus in Minnesota: “We’re watching you”: Racist note left on Woodbury home of Asian American couple, 2020. Retrieved from:https://minnesota.cbslocal.com/2020/03/27/coronavirus-in-minnesota-were-watching-you-racist-noteleft-on-woodbury-home-of-asian-american-couple/

[41] Sheldon, C. Girl charged with racially assaulting Asian woman over coronavirus, 2020.Retrieved from: https://www.nj.com/coronavirus/2020/04/girl-charged-withracially-assaulting-asian-woman-over-coronavirus.html

[42] Eyewitness. “Where’s your (expletive) mask?”:Asian woman attacked in Manhattan hate crime,2020. Retrieved from https://abc7ny.com/6003396/

[43] Bensimon, O. Cops bust suspect accused of coronavirus-related hate crime on Asian man, 2020. Retrieved from:https://nypost.com/2020/03/14/cops-bust-suspect-incoronavirus-related-hate-crime-on-asian-man/

[44] Moore, T., Cassady, D. Asian woman assaulted in Manhattan, blamed for coronavirus:Cops, 2020a.Retrieved from:https://nypost.com/2020/03/17/asian-woman-assaulted-inmanhattan-blamed-for-coronavirus-cops/

[45] Li, D. K. Coronavirus hate attack: Woman in face mask allegedly assaulted by man who calls her “diseased”, 2020. Retrieved from:https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/coronavirus-hate-attack-woman-face-mask-allegedly-assaulted-man-who-n1130671?cid=sm_npd_nn_tw_ma

[46] Moore, T., Cassady, D. Straphanger sprays Asian man with Febreze in possible hate crime, 2020b. Retrieved from:https://nypost.com/2020/03/05/straphanger-spraysasian-man-with-febreze-in-possible-hate-crime/

[47] Parnell, W. Coronavirus-inspired crook robs Asian woman of cellphone while spewinghate, 2020. Retrieved from https://www.nydailynews.com/coronavirus/ny-coronavirus-cellphone-robbery-hate-crime-brooklyn-subway-20200322-ufznc24nybcencdtja2ycbsx2i-story.html

[48] Katinas, P. Staffer ousted after urging boycott of Asian businesses over Coronavirus fears, 2020. Retrieved from: https://brooklyneagle.com/articles/2020/03/05/staffer-ousted-after-urging-boycott-of-asian-businesses-over-coronavirus-fears/

[49] Tanenbaum, M. Video allegedly shows group assaulting couple on Philly subway platform, 2020.Retrieved from:https://www.phillyvoice.com/philly-subway-assault-asian-couple-video-septa-police-coronavirus-fear-harassment/

[50] Morris, D., Trevizo, V. Teen charged in “racially motivated”Sam’s club stabbing, 2020. Retrieved from:https://www.newswest9.com/article/news/stabbingat-samsclub/513-da08cae7-b407-491a-9c24-dcec22ee5dd3

[51] Trammell, M. “Coronavirus” poster prank led to armed confrontation in dorm room at Angelo State University, 2020. Retrieved from:https://sanangelolive.com/news/crime/2020-04-03/report-coronavirus-poster-prank-led-armed-confrontation-dorm-room-angelo-state

[52] Peng, S. Smashed windows and racist graffiti: Vandals target Asian Americans amid coronavirus, 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/smashed-windows-racist-graffiti-vandals-target-asian-americans-amid-coronavirus-n1180556

[53] IASC. Addressing mental health and psychological aspects of COVID-19 Outbreak, 2020. Retrieved from: https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/system/files/2020-03/IASC%20Interim%20Briefing%20Note%20on%20COVID-19%20Outbreak%20Readiness%20and%20Response%20Operations%20-%20 MHPSS_0.pdf

[54] Regional. Mental health and COVID-19, 2020. Retrieved from: http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-emergencies/coronavirus-covid-19/novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov-technical-guidance-OLD/coronavirus-disease-covid-19-outbreak-technical-guidance-europe-OLD/mental-health-andcovid-19

[55] AAPA. The Asian American Psychological Association Executive Committee releases public statement on COVID-19, 2020. Retrieved from: https://aapaonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/AAPA-COVID19-statement.pdf

[56] Ao, B. Asian Americans already face a mental health crisis. Coronavirus racism could make it worse, 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.inquirer.com/health/coronavirus/coronavirus-racism-asian-americans-mental-health-20200422.html

[57] Priest, N., Paradis, Y., Trennery, B., Troung, M., Karlsen, S., Kelly Y. A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people. Social Science & Medicine, 2013, 95: 110127.

[58] Weedon, A., Yang, S., Xiao, B. Coronavirus is reminding people how racism takes a psychological toll, but there are ways to be resilient, 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-05-08/how-to-deal-with-racism-psychological-residue-coronavirus/12216236?nw=0

[59] Medlock, M. Covid-19 will pass. Will we be able to say the same about the racism it has illuminated? 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.statnews.com/2020/04/23/covid-19-will-pass-what-about-the-racism-it-has-illuminated/

Downloads

How to Cite

Edara, I. R. (2020). Anti-Asian Racism in the Shadow of COVID-19 in the USA: Reported Incidents, Psychological Implications, and Coping Resources. Journal of Psychological Research, 2(3), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.30564/jpr.v2i3.1932

Issue

Vol. 2 , Iss. 3 (July 2020)

Article Type

Article

License

Copyright © 2020 Inna Reddy Edara

Creative Commons License

This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.

Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC